6. Water Resource

Competency Based Questions:

1. A village in Rajasthan faces frequent droughts but receives occasional intense rainfall during the monsoon. Which water conservation method will most effectively help recharge groundwater for year-round use?

a) Digging deeper open wells in the village center

b) Relying on water tanker supply from nearby towns

c) Building rooftop rainwater harvesting structures on houses

d) Constructing large concrete dams on nearby rivers

Ans: c) Building rooftop rainwater harvesting structures on houses

Rooftop rainwater harvesting allow rainfall to be collected directly from roof surfaces and either stored or directed into the ground through recharge pits and wells. This method is especially effective in areas with seasonal and intense rainfall, like many parts of Rajasthan, because it turns short bursts of rain into a reliable source that supports groundwater recharge. It is cost-effective, requires relatively simple technology, and can be adopted by individual households, schools, and public buildings. Over time, widespread adoption can significantly raise the groundwater level, making wells and handpumps more reliable throughout the year. It also reduces dependence on distant sources, avoids the environmental and social costs of big dams, and empowers local communities to manage their own water sustainably. As a decentralized, climate-resilient strategy, it is strongly promoted in India’s water policy and urban building rules.

2. In many parts of peninsular India, tanks have traditionally been used to store water. Which statement best explains their geographical advantage in this region?

a) They are effective only in coastal areas where tides bring in freshwater

b) They make use of natural depressions in hard rock terrain to store surface runoff

c) They are built only on glacier-fed rivers with perennial flow

d) They depend exclusively on underground springs and not on rainfall

Ans: b) They make use of natural depressions in hard rock terrain to store surface runoff

Tanks in peninsular India make use of natural depressions or are formed by constructing earthen bunds across seasonal streams in a hard rock plateau. Because the underlying rock is less permeable, surface runoff during the monsoon can be effectively stored in relatively shallow basins. These tanks serve multiple purposes—irrigation, drinking water, livestock, and groundwater recharge as some water slowly infiltrates around the margins. They are especially suitable in areas with seasonal rainfall and undulating relief, where large dams may not be feasible or economical. Historically, tank systems were community-managed and linked in cascades so overflow from an upper tank would feed lower ones, optimizing the use of monsoon water.

3. A farmer in Punjab uses canal irrigation extensively for his paddy fields. Over several years, he notices waterlogging and salinization of the soil. Which practice would best help to reduce this environmental problem?

a) Stopping irrigation completely for a few seasons

b) Adopting drip or sprinkler irrigation methods

c) Practicing surface flooding more frequently

d) Increasing the duration of canal water supply

Ans: b) Adopting drip or sprinkler irrigation methods enables efficient, controlled application of water, significantly reducing total consumption compared to traditional canal or surface flooding. In drip irrigation, water is delivered directly to plant roots through a network of pipes and emitters, which minimizes evaporation losses and prevents unnecessary wetting of the entire field. Sprinklers also distribute water evenly and in smaller quantities over time. Because less water is applied, the water table does not rise as much, thereby reducing the chances of waterlogging and salt accumulation near the surface. This helps in maintaining soil structure and fertility while conserving water. Such methods are especially valuable in regions with intensive irrigation and in areas where canal irrigation has caused environmental problems like salinization.

4. Which of the following situations best illustrates the concept of “water stress” at a national level, as used in the study of water resources?

a) A country receives high annual rainfall but experiences frequent floods in one river basin

b) A country experiences a single year of severe drought followed by normal rainfall

c) A country has annual per capita availability of water below 1,700 cubic metres with growing demand

d) A country has a long coastline and abundant marine water resources

Ans: c) A country has annual per capita availability of water below 1,700 cubic metres with growing demand

Water stress at the national level is generally identified when per capita annual water availability declines below 1,700 cubic metres. At this level, a country may begin to face periodic or regular difficulty in meeting water requirements for all sectors—agriculture, industry, domestic use, and environmental needs. When this happens alongside rising population and economic growth, demand increases while supply remains limited, creating stress on water systems and infrastructure. This can lead to overexploitation of groundwater, pollution of available resources, and inter-regional or inter-sectoral conflicts over water.

sharing.

5. An urban housing society in Gurugram observes rapid decline in its groundwater level due to heavy extraction through borewells. Which immediate, locally manageable step should the society take to contribute most effectively to groundwater recharge?

a) Divert sewage water into open pits to allow percolation

b) Construct a large dam on a nearby seasonal stream

c) Install community-level rooftop rainwater harvesting and recharge wells

d) Plant only water-intensive ornamental lawns in all open spaces

Ans: c) Install community-level rooftop rainwater harvesting and recharge wells

This allows the housing society to capture the substantial rainfall that occurs during the monsoon and direct it into the ground instead of losing it as surface runoff. Roofs provide a clean catchment surface; the collected water can be passed through filters and then led into recharge structures such as deep recharge wells, trenches, or percolation pits. This process helps raise the water table gradually and improves the sustainability of borewell use. It is cost-effective when shared by many households, reduces dependence on external water tankers, and aligns with urban water conservation policies. Over time, such local recharge measures can make a meaningful difference, especially when adopted widely across neighbourhoods.

6. Which of the following best explains why groundwater has become the most widely used source of irrigation in many parts of India since the Green Revolution?

a) Groundwater irrigation requires no energy input and is cheaper than all other methods

b) Groundwater is unlimited and cannot be depleted even with excessive pumping

c) Groundwater can be accessed independently by farmers using tube wells and pumps

d) Groundwater is always of better quality than surface water and needs no treatment

Ans: c) Groundwater can be accessed independently by farmers using tube wells and pumps

The key socio-economic reason groundwater can be tapped locally using tube wells, borewells, and pumps, allowing individual farmers to control water access without depending on canal schedules or government agencies. The spread of electric and diesel pump sets during and after the Green Revolution made such extraction easier and faster. As a result, groundwater became a convenient and reliable source for irrigating high-yielding crop varieties that require assured water supply. However, this very convenience has also led to overexploitation in many regions, causing falling water tables, dry wells, and long-term sustainability concerns.

7. Inter-basin transfer of river water, as proposed in some national river-linking projects, aims primarily to achieve which of the following objectives?

a) Increase rainfall in arid regions by creating more water bodies

b) Transfer surplus water from water-rich basins to water-deficit basins

c) Stop all floods in the Himalayan rivers permanently

d) Replace all groundwater use with surface water use

Ans: b) Transfer surplus water from water-rich basins to water-deficit basins

Inter-basin transfer of river water is designed to move part of the flow from basins that are considered to have surplus water—often those with high monsoon runoff and frequent floods—to basins where demand exceeds available water. By constructing canals and reservoirs, planners hope to enhance irrigation in drought-prone areas, reduce regional disparities in water availability, and improve reliability of supply for agriculture, industry, and cities. Such projects are complex and controversial, as they involve submergence of land, displacement of people, ecological impacts, and high costs. However, the central objective remains the redistribution of water from comparatively water-rich to water-deficit regions at a national or regional scale.

8. A village panchayat decides to revive its traditional johad (earthen water harvesting structure) in a semi-arid part of Rajasthan. Which of the following long-term outcomes best reflects sustainable water resource management?

a) Rapid conversion of common grazing lands into private farmhouses around the johad

b) Increased runoff from fields leading to more frequent flash floods downstream

c) Complete replacement of agriculture with industrial activities in the region

d) Rise in local groundwater levels supporting wells and base flow in streams

Ans: d) Rise in local groundwater levels supporting wells and base flow in streams

A rise in local groundwater levels that sustains wells, handpumps, and base flow in streams is a hallmark of successful and sustainable revival of traditional structures like johads. By capturing rainfall and surface runoff, johads slow the movement of water across the landscape, giving it time to infiltrate. This increases soil moisture, supports vegetation growth, and replenishes aquifers. Over the years, farmers can cultivate more reliably, livestock have better access to water, and ecosystems such as wetlands and riparian zones are revitalized. Importantly, this approach relies on local materials, community participation, and respect for traditional knowledge, making it both environmentally and socially sustainable.

9. Which example best demonstrates the concept of “virtual water” in the context of India’s water resources and trade?

a) A city reusing treated sewage water for gardening and parks

b) An industry treating its wastewater before releasing it into a river

c) A farmer using drip irrigation to save water on his field

d) Export of water-intensive crops like rice and sugarcane to other countries

Ans: d) Export of water-intensive crops like rice and sugarcane to other countries

Export of water-intensive crops like rice and sugarcane to other countries clearly illustrates virtual water: the water used for irrigation, processing, and related activities is implicit in the goods crossing borders. The importing country benefits from this embedded water without directly drawing from its own physical resources, while the exporting country has already borne the water cost. For a country like India, which faces regional water scarcity, exporting large volumes of such crops can put additional pressure on its water resources. Understanding virtual water helps policymakers evaluate whether export patterns are sustainable, encourages more water-efficient cropping choices, and promotes trade strategies that align with long-term water security.

10. In a Himalayan region, a proposed dam project will create a large reservoir by submerging a forested valley. From the perspective of sustainable water resource management, which concern is most relevant?

a) Increased opportunities for tourism and boating in the reservoir

b) Loss of biodiversity and displacement of local communities due to submergence

c) Greater generation of hydroelectric power for nearby cities

d) Improved connectivity due to new roads built for the project

Ans: c) Loss of biodiversity and displacement of local communities due to submergence

Tourism and boating may provide economic benefits but are not the primary sustainability concern in a project that submerges forests and settlements; this option overlooks social and ecological costs. Large dams often drown extensive areas of forest, wildlife habitat, and agricultural land, leading to loss of species and ecological services. They also require relocation of people, including tribal and rural communities whose livelihoods and cultures are closely tied to the local environment. Sustainable water management demands careful assessment of these impacts, fair rehabilitation of displaced people, and exploration of less damaging alternatives or designs that minimize submergence.

11. In an examination question, students are asked to “justify the need for multipurpose river valley projects”. Which of the following points would be the most appropriate to include in a competency-based answer?

a) They are mainly a symbol of national pride and engineering skill

b) They are designed to completely eliminate monsoon rainfall variability

c) They are built only to generate maximum electricity for export

d) They integrate functions like irrigation, flood control, hydropower, and water supply for multiple uses

Ans: d) They integrate functions like irrigation, flood control, hydropower, and water supply for multiple uses

Multipurpose river valley projects are planned to achieve several objectives simultaneously. By building a dam and reservoir system, planners can store surplus monsoon water and then release it in a regulated manner throughout the year. This supports irrigation in command areas, ensuring water for crops even in dry seasons. Hydropower generation at the dam provides renewable electricity. The controlled release of water can help reduce the severity of floods downstream during peak monsoon flows, while stored water can supply drinking and industrial needs. Some projects also enhance inland navigation and fisheries. In a competency-based answer, mentioning this integration of functions and how it addresses seasonal and spatial variability of water resources will show deeper understanding.

12. Due to over-extraction of groundwater in a coastal area of Gujarat, villagers notice that the water from their wells has become salty. Which process is most likely responsible for this change?

a) Deposition of salts from industrial chimneys directly into the wells

b) Intrusion of seawater into coastal aquifers as groundwater levels fall

c) Eutrophication of surface water bodies due to excess nutrients

d) Increased evaporation of freshwater from the wells

Ans: b) Intrusion of seawater into coastal aquifers as groundwater levels fall

Intrusion of seawater into coastal aquifers as groundwater levels fall is the most likely process causing wells to become salty in coastal regions. Under natural conditions, the freshwater stored in coastal aquifers exerts enough pressure to keep seawater at bay. However, when humans pump out large volumes of groundwater, the water table drops and the freshwater pressure decreases. Seawater then advances inland and upwards into the aquifer, mixing with and replacing the freshwater. This results in saline water being drawn from wells, making it unsuitable for drinking and irrigation without treatment. Managing this problem requires reducing extraction, promoting recharge through rainwater harvesting, and carefully planning groundwater use to maintain a safe balance.

Subjective Questions:

1. Summarize the water resources available in India and identify the factors that determine the spatial distribution of the available water resources in the country.

Ans: India possesses abundant water resources from precipitation, rivers, and groundwater, yet faces scarcity due to uneven distribution and overexploitation.

Available Water Resources

India receives 4,000 BCM annual precipitation (average 1,170 mm), yielding 1,869 BCM utilizable surface water (rivers/lakes) and 432 BCM replenishable groundwater; total utilizable 1,122 BCM, with rivers like Ganga (1.08M sq km basin), Brahmaputra, Godavari, and Indus dominating flow.

Key rivers: Himalayan (Ganga, Brahmaputra – snow-fed, perennial), Peninsular (Godavari, Krishna, Narmada – rain-fed, seasonal); groundwater supports 50%+ irrigation via 20M+ wells.

Factors Determining Spatial Distribution

Water availability varies starkly: surplus in northeast/Ganga basin, deficit in west/Rajasthan/Peninsula.​

• Relief/Topography: High Himalayas receive orographic rainfall (NE monsoon), Western Ghats block southwest monsoon; rain-shadow arid zones (Rajasthan, Deccan).​
• Monsoon Patterns: 75% rain June-Sept; southwest monsoon favors west/north coasts, northeast brings Assam floods.​
• Drainage Density: Large basins (Ganga-Brahmaputra 46% groundwater) vs. short western coastal rivers (11% water from 3% land).​
• Geology/Soil: Porous alluvial Gangetic plains recharge aquifers; rocky Deccan limits percolation.​
• Human Factors: Over-extraction in Punjab/Gujarat depletes; urbanization diverts flows.

2. Explain the utilization of available surface water and groundwater resources.

Ans: Surface water and groundwater in India are utilized primarily for irrigation (89% of water use), domestic supply, industry, hydropower, navigation, and ecology, with groundwater dominating due to accessibility.

Surface Water Utilization

Surface water (1,869 BCM total, 1,123 BCM utilizable) from rivers, reservoirs, and lakes supports 30% of irrigation via canals/major projects; key methods include multipurpose dams (e.g., Bhakra Nangal, Sardar Sarovar) for storage/flood control, traditional systems like johads, bandharas, and tankas for local harvesting/recharge, and inter-basin transfers.

Industrial/hydropower use 8%, with inefficiencies like 40% canal seepage losses prompting micro-irrigation promotion.​

Groundwater Utilization

Groundwater (432 BCM replenishable) meets 62% of irrigation via 20M+ wells/dug wells in states like Punjab (overexploited), supporting 50%+ cropped area; accessed through shallow/deep tube wells, hand pumps for domestic needs (89% rural drinking water), and recharge via pits/check dams.

Over 1,000 BCM extracted annually, causing depletion in 60% districts; conjunctive use with surface water advocated for sustainability.​

3. Analyze India’s present demand for water and explain why some states have low groundwater tables.

Ans: India’s water demand has surged to 1,100 BCM annually (2025), projected to reach 1,500 BCM by 2030, outstripping supply amid population growth to 1.45B and urbanization.

Present Demand Breakdown

• Agriculture: 89% (980 BCM), driven by irrigation for rice/wheat in Punjab-Haryana; domestic 9% (urban rise), industry 2% (projected 15% by 2050).​
• Key Drivers: Crop intensification, food security needs, industrial expansion, and per capita use rising from 1,545 m³ (2001) to <1,200 m³ (stress threshold).​

Reasons for Low Groundwater Tables in Some States

States like Punjab (166% extraction), Haryana (137%), Rajasthan (137%), Delhi (97%), Tamil Nadu have critically low tables due to overexploitation exceeding recharge.

• Agricultural Overuse: Free/subsidized power for tube wells promotes water-guzzling paddy in non-suited areas (Punjab/Haryana rice belts).
• Low Recharge: Arid climates (Rajasthan), hard rock aquifers (TN/Karnataka), erratic monsoons limit replenishment.​
• Urban/Industrial Demand: Delhi/Bengaluru extraction for cities depletes; encroachment of recharge zones.​
• Policy Gaps: No metering, poor regulation; 63% districts declining levels.​

4. Recognize various emerging water problems.

Ans: India faces emerging water problems intensified by climate change, population pressures, and mismanagement, threatening sustainability and security.​

Key Emerging Issues

• Groundwater Depletion: Over-extraction (India world’s largest user) in 1,123 overexploited blocks (21% districts); Punjab/Haryana tables drop 1m/year from free power paddy farming.
• Water Pollution: 70%+ surface water contaminated by sewage/industrial effluents; Ganga/Yamuna 90% polluted, reducing usable supply.​
• Climate-Induced Variability: Erratic monsoons, droughts/floods (e.g., Bengaluru Day Zero risk), glacial melt altering river flows.
• Urban Water Stress: Cities like Chennai/Delhi tanker-dependent; 600M face high stress, infrastructure leaks waste 40%.
• Inefficient Use: Irrigation efficiency 38% (vs. global 50-60%); poor recycling (28% urban wastewater treated).​

These amplify scarcity, affecting 21 cities by 2030 per NITI Aayog.

5. Analyze the causes of the deterioration of the quality of water.

Water quality in India has deteriorated significantly due to point and non-point pollution sources, rendering 70%+ of surface water unfit for human use and contaminating groundwater.

Primary Causes

Pollution stems from untreated human activities overwhelming natural assimilation capacities.

• Domestic Sewage: Largest contributor (80% untreated); households discharge organic waste, pathogens, detergents into rivers via open drains, causing oxygen depletion and eutrophication in Ganga/Yamuna.
• Agricultural Runoff: Fertilizers (nitrates/phosphates), pesticides leach during monsoons, triggering algal blooms that kill aquatic life; affects 40%+ water bodies.
• Industrial Effluents: Untreated discharge from textiles, tanneries, chemicals adds heavy metals (mercury, lead), dyes; 20,000+ polluting units violate norms.
• Cultural/Religious Practices: Idol immersion (plaster of Paris, synthetic paints), cremation ashes during festivals release toxins; Ganesh/Chhath Puja pollutes rivers seasonally.
• Urbanization/Solid Waste: Plastic, construction debris increase turbidity; oil spills from ports block oxygen exchange.​

Consequences

Bioaccumulation poisons food chains, spreads waterborne diseases (cholera, jaundice), and reduces irrigation suitability, exacerbating scarcity.

6. Describe the need for water management and conservation in India.

India urgently requires water management and conservation due to escalating scarcity, overexploitation, and climate variability threatening agriculture, health, and economic stability.​

Need for Management

Demand (1,100 BCM) exceeds sustainable supply, with groundwater depletion in 21% blocks, 70% surface water polluted, and 600M facing high stress; poor infrastructure wastes 40% via leaks/evaporation.

Agriculture consumes 89% inefficiently (38% utilization), urban supply gaps cause “Day Zero” risks (Bengaluru/Chennai), and erratic monsoons amplify floods/droughts affecting 68% rainfed farmland.

Need for Conservation

Per capita availability fallen to 1,486 m³ (2021), projected <1,000 m³ by 2050; pollution spreads diseases (21% child deaths), industry strains rivers, and uncoordinated governance fragments efforts.

Conservation via rainwater harvesting, micro-irrigation (PMKSY), wastewater reuse (target 20 BCM), and policy reforms ensures food security for 1.45B while sustaining ecosystems.​

7. Explain the strategies of water management and conservation in India.

India requires robust water management and conservation strategies to combat scarcity, pollution, and inefficient use amid rising demands from agriculture, urbanization, and industry.

Key Strategies

National Missions and Programs:

• PMKSY (Har Khet Ko Paani): Expands irrigation via micro-systems (drip/sprinkler saving 30-50% water), watershed development, and traditional water body restoration.
• Atal Bhujal Yojana: Community-led groundwater recharge in 8,220 villages across 7 states, improving levels via check dams and awareness.​
• Jal Jeevan Mission: Tap water to all rural households by 2024 (extended), reducing groundwater dependency.​

River Basin and Pollution Control:

• Namami Gange: ₹22,500 Cr for Ganga cleanup – STPs, riverfronts, biodiversity; targets bathing standards by 2026.​
• National Hydrology Project: Real-time data for better planning, flood forecasting.​

State-Led Initiatives:

• Rajasthan’s MJSA 2.0: 5L water structures in 20K villages (₹11,200 Cr).​
• Telangana’s Mission Kakatiya: Tank restoration boosting groundwater.​

Technological/Community Approaches:

• Rainwater harvesting mandates, greywater reuse, interlinking rivers (Ken-Betwa operational).​

8. Explain the legal policies for water conservation in India.

Ans: legal policies for water conservation integrate constitutional mandates, central legislation, and state adaptations to regulate usage, curb pollution, and ensure sustainability.

Constitutional and Policy Foundations

Water falls under Entry 17 (State List), but Parliament legislates for inter-state rivers (Entry 56); Article 21 guarantees clean water as part of right to life. National Water Policy (2012) prioritizes drinking water, advocates pricing, and basin-level management; updates proposed for 2026 emphasize climate resilience.

Major Legislation

Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974: Creates CPCB/SPCBs to set effluent standards, mandate consents for industries, and impose fines (₹10,000-15 lakhs); 2026 amendments streamline approvals via self-certification for low-risk units.

Environment Protection Act, 1986: Empowers CGWA (1997) to regulate groundwater extraction; industries need NOC for borewells in notified areas.​

Model Ground Water (Sustainable Management) Bill, 2016/2017: Adopted by 21 states/UTs; demarcates overexploited zones, mandates rainwater harvesting, permits extraction, and promotes conjunctive use.

State Laws: Tamil Nadu Ground Water (Development & Management) Act, 2026 treats water as common pool, enforces reuse of treated sewage.​

Complementary Measures

Jal Jeevan Mission/AMRUT legally require rainwater harvesting in buildings >300 sqm; penalties for waste in urban areas. Weak enforcement remains challenge, needing digital metering.​

NCERT Questions

1. Choose the right answer of the followings from the given options:

 (i) Which one of the following types describes water as a resource?

a) Abiotic resources

b) Non-renewable resources

c) Biotech resources

d) Cyclic resources

Ans. d) Cyclic resources

(ii) Which one of the following rivers has the highest replenishable groundwater resources in the country?

a) The Indus

b) The Brahmaputra

c) The Ganga

d) The Godavari

Ans. c) The Ganga

(iii) Which of the following figures in cubic kilometres correctly shows the total annual precipitation in India?

a) 2000

b) 3000

c) 4000

d) 5000

Ans. c) 4000

(iv) Which one of the following South Indian states has the highest groundwater utilization in percentage of its total groundwater potential?

a) Tamil Nadu

b) Karnataka

c) Andhra Pradesh

d) Kerala

Ans. a) Tamil Nadu

(v) The highest proportion of the total water used in the country is in which one of the following sectors?

a) Irrigation

b) industries

c) Domestic use

d) None of the above irrigation

Ans. a) Irrigation

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words:

(i) It is said that water resources in India have been depleting very fast. Discuss the factors responsible for depletion of water resources.

Ans. Water scarcity is possibly to pose the greatest challenge on account of its increased demand coupled with shrinking supplies due to overutilization and pollution, the per capita availability of water is dwindling day by day due to increase in population. The available water resources are now getting polluted with industrial, agricultural and domestic effluents, and this in turn is further limiting the availability of usable water resources.

Some states utilise large proportion of their groundwater potential which has resulted in groundwater depletion in these states. Over withdrawals in some states like Rajasthan and Maharashtra has increased fluoride content concentration in groundwater and this practice has led to increase in concentration of arsenic in parts of West Bengal and Bihar.

Water gets polluted by foreign matters such as micro-organisms, chemicals, industrial, domestic and other wastes. When toxic substances enter lake, streams, rivers, oceans and other water bodies, they get dissolved or lie suspended in water. This results in pollution of water whereby quality of water deteriorates affecting aquatic systems. Sometimes these pollutants also seep down and pollute groundwater. The Ganga and Yamuna are the two highly polluted rivers in the country.

(ii) What factors are responsible for the highest groundwater depletion in the states of Punjab, Haryana and Tamil Nadu?

Ans. The states of Punjab, Haryana and Tamil Nadu have agriculture supported mainly by irrigation water and the main source for it is the underground water. These regions were the target regions for Green Revolution. All the Green revolution crops are water intensive. Hence, the demand for water in these states is very high. These regions have soft alluvial soil which allows the rainwater to seep down and recharge the underground water table. The land is easy to dug hence extraction of underground water is easiest source of water.

It has also been found that irrigated lands have higher agricultural productivity than un-irrigated land. Further, the high yielding varieties of crops need regular moisture supply which is made possible only by a developed irrigation system. In Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, more than 85% of their net sown area is under irrigation. Wheat and rice are grown mainly with the help of irrigation in these states. Of the total net irrigated area, 76.1% in Punjab and 51.3% in Haryana are irrigated through wells and tube wells. This shows that these states utilise large proportion of their groundwater potential which has resulted in groundwater depletion in these states. The overuse of groundwater resources has led to decline in groundwater table in these states.

(iii) Why the share of agricultural sector in total water used in the country is expected to decline?

Ans. At present, the agriculture use accounts for the highest share of utilization for both ground and surface water resources. The main reason being that the agricultural accounts for the largest share in economy of the country but in recent times the share of secondary and tertiary activities has been rising in the economy. This in turn will reduce the share of agriculture and increase the share of industrial and domestic sector in the consumption of all resources, including water resources of the country.

(iv) What can be possible impacts of consumption of contaminated/unclean water on the people?

Ans. Water constitutes a large proportion of human body. Water intake is an essential part of human life. Contaminated water intake is one of the biggest reasons of many chronic diseases. The intake of contaminated water is the cause of severe water borne diseases and is also one of the main causes of high infant mortality rates. The contaminated water is the reason for several diseases like cholera, typhoid etc. which are the major killer diseases in India.

3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words:

(i) Discuss the availability of water resources in the country and factors that determine its spatial distribution.

Ans. India accounts for about 2.45% of world’s surface area, 4% of the world’s water resources and about 16% of the world’s population. The total water available from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4000 cubic km. The availability from surface water and replenishable ground water is 1,869 cubic km. Out of this, only 60% can be put to beneficial uses. Due to topographical, hydrological and other constraints, only about 690 cubic km (32%) of the available surface water can be utilised. Water flow in a river depends on size of its catchment area or river basin and rainfall within its catchment area.

Precipitation in India has very high spatial variation and it is mainly concentrated in monsoon season. Rivers in the country like the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the Indus have huge catchment area and precipitation is also relatively high. These rivers although account for only about 1/3 of the total area in the country, have 60% of the total surface water resources. Moreover, Himalayan Rivers are glacier fed perennial, various southern rivers are rain fed seasonal rivers. Much of the annual water flow in the South Indian Rivers like the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri has been harnessed, but it is yet to be done in the Brahmaputra and Ganga basin.

Groundwater Resources: The total replenishable groundwater resources in the country are about 432 cubic km. The level of groundwater utilization is relatively high in the river basin lying in the North Western region and parts of South India, the groundwater utilization is very high in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. However, there are states like Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Kerala etc. which utilise only a small proportion of their groundwater potentials. States like Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tripura and Maharashtra are utilising their groundwater resources at a moderate rate.

Lagoons and backwaters:  India has a vast coastline and quite a few coasts are much intended in some states. Due to this, number of lagoons and lakes has been formed. The states like Kerala, Odisha and West Bengal have lost surface water resource in these lagoons and lakes. Water is generally used for fishing and irrigating certain varieties of paddy crops, coconut, etc.

Surface water resources: There are four major sources of surface water. These are rivers, lakes, ponds and tanks. In the country, there are about 10,360 rivers and their tributaries longer than 1.6 km each. The mean annual flow in all the river basins in India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km.

(i) The depleting water resources may lead to social conflicts and disputes. Elaborate it with suitable examples.

Ans. It can be said with some certainty that the societies will witness demographic transition, geographical shift of population, technological advancement, degradation of environment and water scarcity. Water scarcity is possibly to pose the greatest challenge on account of its increased demand coupled with shrinking supplies due to overutilization and pollution. Water is a cyclic resource with abundant supplies on the globe. Approximately 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered with it. But fresh water constitutes only about 3% of the total water.

In fact, a very small proportion of fresh water is effectively available for human use. The availability of fresh water varies over space and time. The tension and disputes on sharing and control of this scarce resource are becoming contested issues among communities, regions and states.

India accounts for 2.45% of world’s surface area, 4% of water resources and about 16% of population. The total utilizable water resource in the country is only 1,122 cubic km. This dearth of utilizable water has caused several disputes in India at local, state and national levels. Sadly, in India there is a conflict on issues like social structure (caste ism, communalism etc).

Rivers of northern India have condition of water surplus and many regions face flood situation whereas the rivers in southern India have perennial flow concentrated in the months of monsoon leading to water scarcity during the rest of the year. To solve the situation there have been many proposed river linkage schemes which became causes for disputes among the states over the sharing of water resources.

It is the scarcity of water that caused long standing disputes between the state of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over sharing of waters of Kaveri River. Sharing of water of Brahmaputra has always been a cause of conflict between India and Bangladesh. Much to India’s dislike and concern China is planning to build a dam on river Brahmaputra.

(iii) What is watershed management? Do you think it can play an important role in sustainable development?

Ans. Watershed management basically refers to efficient management and conservation of surface and groundwater resources with community participation. It involves prevention of runoff and storage and recharge of groundwater through various methods like percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc. However, in broad sense, watershed management includes conservation, regeneration and judicious use of all resources natural like land, water, plants and animals, and human within a watershed. Watershed management aims at bringing about balance between natural resources on the one hand and society on the other. The success of watershed development largely depends upon community participation. In short, community is the soul of the entire scheme.

Watershed management not only conserves the entire ecosystem of an area but also empowers the people by making them socially and economically self-reliant as it has community participation its vital component. Since local people understand the local ecosystem in the best way, therefore they conserve in the best way. Sustainable development is the development which fulfils the needs of present generation without depriving the future generations from the benefits arising from the resources.

The Importance of watershed management in sustainable development has been identified and many programs both by government and NGOs have been launched for the watershed management:

Such examples are ‘Hariyali’ watershed development project sponsored by the central government which aims at enabling the rural population to conserve water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation. The project is being executed by gram panchayats with people’s participation.

‘Neeru-Meeru’ (Water and You) programme in Andhra Pradesh and ‘Arvary Pani Sansad’ in Alwar, Rajasthan have taken up constructions of various water harvesting structure such as percolation tanks dug out ponds (johad), check dams etc. through people’s participation.

Tamil Nadu has compulsory water harvesting structures in the houses. No building can be constructed without making structures for water harvesting.

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